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1."The pyramids are the visible examples of the scientific and technological knowledge of the Egyptians". Evaluate this statement and write your conclusions. 2. Give an account of the harappan civilization on the basis of the hints given below. *Extent *Trade and commerce *Town planning *Art of writing

There are 138 pyramids discovered in Egypt as of 2008. Most were built as tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. The Ancient Egyptians were very well organised and they required a good understanding of technology, science and mathematics to enable them to build what has become known as one of the wonders of the ancient world. The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance.

So we can conclude that built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids—especially the Great Pyramids of Giza—are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. This is why it is the only surviving structure out of the famed seven wonders of the ancient world.

Harappan civilization

Extent

 Geographically, the Harappan civilization was spread over an area of some 1,260,000 km, comprising the whole of modern day Pakistan and parts of modern-day India and Afghanistan. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. The major urban centers of the Indus valley civilizations were Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Kalibanga, Banwalli etc. The Indus Valley Civilization was extended from Baluchistan to Gujarat, with an upward reach to the Punjab from east of River Jhelum to Rupar on the upper Sutlej. The coast settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at Iranian border to Lothal in Gujarat.

Trade and commerce

There was a well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through Barter System.

The Harappan cities were connected with rural agricultural communities and distant resource and mining areas through strong trade systems.

Used animals, river boats and bullock carts for transport. This trade is reflected in the widespread distribution of exquisite beads and ornaments, metal tools and pottery that were produced by specialized artisans in the towns and cities.

The major commodities in internal trade consisted of Cotton, lumber, grain, livestock and other food stuffs.

A highly standardized system of weights was used to control trade and also probably for collecting taxes. 16 was the unit of measurement.

The Indus valley people had also close commercial relation with Central Asia, the Arabian Gulf region and the distant Mesopotamian cities, such as Susa and Ur Excavations at Lothal reveals the existence of a dock supporting the activities of trade in that period. Trade also existed with Northern Afghanistan from where the Harappans bought the famous blue gemstones.

Town planning

In town planning consideration was given to the civic amenities, the sewerage system and drainage.

The Harappan settlements were found built of mud bricks, burnt bricks and chiselled stones.

The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were also laid out in a perfect grid pattern, The street layout showed an understanding of the basic principles of traffic, with rounded corners to allow the turning of carts easily. These streets divided the city into 12 blocks.

The average house in these ancient cities appeared to have stood at least two storeys high as suggested by the thickness of the enclosing wall and by remnants of wide staircases where the steps and risers still survive to considerable height from the occupation level on the ground floor. The houses were built on plinths rising above the street level with flights of steps recessed in the wall at the front door. The doors of the houses usually opened on to the side lanes rather than on to the main streets.

Large granaries were located near each of the citadels, which suggest that the state stored grain for ceremonial purposes, times of shortage, and possibly the regulation of grain production and sale.

The Indus civilization had an elaborate sanitary and drainage system, the hallmark of ancient Indus cities. The Authorities maintained a highly efficient drainage system. Each and every house had a connection with the main drain. These even had inspection holes for maintenance. The conduits to the main drains running through the middle of the streets below pavement level and covered with flat stones and sturdy tile bricks. The covered drain was connected to the larger sewerage outlets which finally led the dirty water outside the populated areas. The urban plan found in these cities included the world`s first urban sanitation systems. The elaborate brick-lined drainage system for the removal of rainwater is of unparalleled engineering skill.

Art of Writing

The Indus Valley people had some knowledge of the art of writing, though in a rudimentary way. No regular documents on stone or baked clay tablets have been found but the numerous seals, representing unicorns and bulls and other objects give us the idea that the people had a language of their own. Some historians are of the view that the script found on the seals are similar to the ones used in Egypt, Sumeria and other countries of Western Asia. The script is pictographic, but still remains un-deciphered though there are nearly four hundred signs.

The writing was generally from left to right, but in some cases it was in the opposite direction i.e., right to left in the first line and left to right in the second.