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London
London is a leading global city,[9][10] with strengths in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transport all contributing to its prominence.[11] It is one of the world's leading financial centres[12][13][14] and has the fifth-or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world depending on measurement.[note 3][15][16] London is a world cultural capital.[17][18][19][20] It is the world's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals[21] and has the world's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic.[22] London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe.[23] In 2012, London became the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.[24]
London
London 
i/?l?nd?n/ is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom.[3] It is the most populous city in the United Kingdom with a metropolitan area of over 13 million inhabitants. Standing on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named itLondinium.[4] London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1.12-square-mile (2.9 km2) mediaeval boundaries and in 2011 had a resident population of 7,375, making it the smallest city in England. Since at least the 19th century, the termLondon has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core.[5] The bulk of this conurbation forms the Greater London administrative area (coterminous with the London region),[6][7][note 1] governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.[8][note 2]
equator
The Equator lies mostly on the three largest oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. The highest point on the Equator is at the elevation of 4,690 metres (15,387 ft), at 0°0?0?N 77°59?31?W, found on the southern slopes of Volcán Cayambe [summit 5,790 metres (18,996 ft)] in Ecuador. This is slightly above the snow line, and is the only place on the Equator where snow lies on the ground. At the Equator the snow line is around 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) lower than on Mount Everest and as much as 2,000 metres (6,560 ft) lower than the highest snow line in the world near the Tropic of Capricorn on Llullaillaco.
season and climate
Seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution. During the year the northern and southern hemispheres are inclined toward or away from the sun according to Earth's position in its orbit. The hemisphere inclined toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter (see solstice). At the equinox the Earth's axis is not tilted toward the sun and the day is about 12 hours long over most of the Earth.
Near the Equator there is little distinction between summer, winter, autumn, or spring. The temperatures are usually high year-round—with the exception of high mountains in South America and in Africa. (See Andes Mountains and Mt. Kilimanjaro.) The temperature at the Equator can plummet during rainstorms. In many tropical regions people identify two seasons: the wet season and the dry season, but many places close to the Equator are on the oceans or rainy throughout the year. The seasons can vary depending on elevation and proximity to an ocean.
equator
An equator is the intersection of a sphere's surface with the plane perpendicular to the sphere's axis of rotation and midway between the poles. The Equator usually refers to theEarth's equator: an imaginary line on the Earth's surface equidistant from the North Poleand South Pole, dividing the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. Other planets and astronomical bodies have equators similarly defined. Earth's equator is about 40,075 kilometres (24,901 mi) long; 78.7% is across water and 21.3% is over land.
longitude
Longitude is given as an angular measurement ranging from 0° at the Prime Meridian to +180° eastward and ?180° westward. The Greek letter ? (lambda),[4][5] is used to denote the location of a place on Earth east or west of the Prime Meridian.
Each degree of longitude is sub-divided into 60 minutes, each of which is divided into 60 seconds. A longitude is thus specified insexagesimal notation as 23° 27? 30? E. For higher precision, the seconds are specified with a decimal fraction. An alternative representation uses degrees and minutes, where parts of a minute are expressed in decimal notation with a fraction, thus:23° 27.500? E. Degrees may also be expressed as a decimal fraction: 23.45833° E. For calculations, the angular measure may be converted to radians, so longitude may also be expressed in this manner as a signed fraction of ? (pi), or an unsigned fraction of 2?.
For calculations, the West/East suffix is replaced by a negative sign in the western hemisphere. Confusingly, the convention of negative for East is also sometimes seen. The preferred convention—that East be positive—is consistent with a right-handedCartesian coordinate system, with the North Pole up. A specific longitude may then be combined with a specific latitude (usually positive in the northern hemisphere) to give a precise position on the Earth's surface.
Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time(UTC). Since there are 24 hours in a day and 360 degrees in a circle, the sun moves across the sky at a rate of 15 degrees per hour (360°/24 hours = 15° per hour). So if the time zone a person is in is three hours ahead of UTC then that person is near 45° longitude (3 hours × 15° per hour = 45°). The word near was used because the point might not be at the center of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centers and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°. In order to perform this calculation, however, a person needs to have a chronometer (watch) set to UTC and needs to determine local time by solar or astronomical observation. The details are more complex than described here: see the articles on Universal Time and on the equation of time for more details.
important dates to remember
- . 600 BC: Pandyan kingdom in South India[54][55][56]
- 599 BC: Mahavira,[57] founder of Jainism is born as a prince at Kundalavana, who ruled Magadha Empire.[58]
- 563 BC: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), founder of Buddhism is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe, which ruled parts ofMagadha, one of the Maha Janapadas[59][60]
- 551 BC: Confucius, founder of Confucianism, is born[61]
- 550 BC: The Achaemenid Empire is founded by Cyrus the Great[62]
- 546 BC: Cyrus the Great overthrows Croesus King of Lydia[63]
- 544 BC: Rise of Magadha as the dominant power under Bimbisara.[64]
- 539 BC: The Fall of the Babylonian Empire[65][66] and liberation of the Jews by Cyrus the Great[67]
- 529 BC: Death of Cyrus the Great[68]
- 525 BC: Cambyses II of Persia conquers Egypt[69][70]
- c. 512 BC: Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia,[71] subjugates eastern Thrace, Macedonia submits voluntarily, and annexes Libya, Persian Empire at largest extent
- 509 BC: Expulsion of the last King of Rome, founding of Roman Republic (traditional date)[72][73]
- 508 BC: Democracy instituted by Cleisthenes at Athens[74]
- c. 500 BC: Panini standardizes the grammar and morphology of Sanskrit in the textAshtadhyayi.[75] Panini's standardized Sanskrit is known as Classical Sanskrit.
- 500 BC: Pingala develops system ranks of binary patterns.[76][77]
- 490 BC: Greek city-states defeat Persian invasion at Battle of Marathon[78][79]
- 480-479 BC: Greek city states decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plataea, ending once and for all the Persian threat to Greece.[80]
- 480 BC King Leonidas of Sparta died 10 August
iron age
The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region. During the 13th to 12th centuries BC, the Ramesside Period occurred in Egypt. Around 1200 BC, the Trojan War was thought to have taken place.[36] By c. 1180 BC, the disintegration of the Hittite Empire was underway.
pre history
Prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations[32] in the Lower Paleolithicsaw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago. The controlled use of fire occurred 800 thousand years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250 thousand years ago, Homo sapiens (modern humans) emerged in Africa. 60–70 thousand years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia. 50 thousand years ago, modern humans spread from Asia to the Near East. Europe was first reached by modern humans 40 thousand years ago. Humans migrated to the Americas about 15 thousand years ago in the Upper Paleolithic,
history
A fundamental difficulty of studying ancient history is that recorded histories cannot document the entirety of human events, and only a fraction of those documents have survived into the present day.[27]Furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered.[27][28] Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history.[29]
The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484–c. 425 BC). Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta,[30] establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event.[30]
The Roman Empire was one of the ancient world's most literate cultures,[31] but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. For example, Livy, a Roman historian who lived in the 1st century BC, wrote a history of Rome called Ab Urbe Condita (From the Founding of the City) in 144 volumes; only 35 volumes still exist, although short summaries of most of the rest do exist. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived.