1.‘Industrialisation gave birth to Imperialism’. Substantiate the statement ?

Imperialism can be called as the ill-begotten child of industrialisation. Industrialization chiefly needs two things – the constant supply of raw-materials and the markets for the finished goods to be sold. The industrialized countries had introduced heavy import duties as protective tariffs to check the import from other countries. Faced with the problem of finding new markets for their products, the producer nations chose such countries where industrialization had not yet reached. Hence a race for bringing those areas under their effective occupation or effective influence started among the various industrialized nations. As a result, Britain, France, Germany and Japan set up their colonies in Asia, Africa, South America, etc. These colonies served their two purposes of being the suppliers of cheap raw materials and an easy market for their finished goods.

2. What do you mean by the term proto-industrialization?

Proto-industrialisation is a phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded and created conditions for the establishment of fully industrial societies. This means the existence of industries before the factory system. There was large scale industrial production for the international market even before factories began to appear in England and Europe. As all this production was not based on factories, such a phase of industrialisation before the appearance of factories is referred to as proto-industrialisation by many historians.

Proto-industrialization was marked by the increasing involvement of agrarian families in market-oriented craft production, mainly through the putting-out system organized by merchant capitalists. It was a decentralised method of production which was controlled by merchants. In the urban areas, there were craft guilds which produced a variety of things much before the introduction of machines. Similarly, in the rural areas, the merchants had set up their own production units where most of the work was done by hand by the workers or labourers in their family-farms and not in factories. This proto-industrial system was in vogue in England and Europe much before the rise of factories.

3. How far is proto-industrialization different from factory production?

Proto-industrialization was a decentralization method of production which was controlled by merchants and the goods were produced by a vast number of producers located in different places whereas under factories, production became centralized. Most of the processes were brought together under one roof and management.

4. 'Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny'. Explain the context

When the industrial revolution started in England, the workers were hostile towards the new technology. A new spinning machine called Spinning Jenny speeded up the spinning process and reduced the labour demands. By the use of this machine, a single worker could make a number of spindles and spin several threads at a time. It means that many weavers would be left without any job and become unemployed. It was this fear of unemployment which made the women workers, who survived on hand spinning, begin attacking the new machines.

5. Briefly explain why in the 17^th century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages.

Different rulers had granted the urban craft and trade the monopoly rights to produce and trade in specific products. It was therefore, difficult for new merchants to set up business in towns. So they turned to country side. In the country side, the poor peasants and artisans began working for these merchants. The peasants had only got small plots of land which could not provide work for all the members of the family. They required alternative source of income. Therefore, when merchants came around and offered advances to produce goods for them, the peasant households agreed readily and happily.

6. Who created the cotton mill? How did it help in improving the production?

Richard Arkwight had created the cotton mill.

1. The costly machines could be purchased, set up and maintained in the mill.
2. Within the mill, all the processes were brought together under one foot and management. This allowed a more careful supervision over the production process, a watch over quality and the regulation of labour, all of which had been difficult to do when the production was in the countryside.

7. What were the problems of Indian weavers at the early 19^th century?

1. Due to industrialization in Britain, their export market collapsed.
2. As British traders started exporting machine-made clothes to India so their local market shrank.
3. As raw cotton was being exported to England, there was a shortage of raw materials.
4. When the American Civil War broke out and the cotton supplies from United States were cut off, Britain turned to India. As raw cotton exports from India increased, the prices of raw cotton shot up. Weavers in India were starved of supplies and forced to buy raw cotton at higher prices.

8. How were the Indian merchant industrialists discriminated by the Britishers?

1. The market within which Indian merchants could function became increasingly limited.
2. Indian merchants and traders were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods and had to export mostly raw materials and food grains, raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo required by the British.
3. With the entry of modern ships Indian merchants were edged out of the shipping business.
4. The European merchant-industrialists had their exclusive Chambers of Commerce and Indians were not allowed to become its members.

9. How were new merchant groups in Europe able to spread their business in the countryside before the Industrial Revolution? Explain.

1. In the countryside, the open field system was prevailing, land was free and anyone could use it for production, so, the rich landlords started enclosing the open fields.
2. They had earlier depended on common lands for their survival, gathering the firewood, berries, vegetables, hay and straw. Now they had to look for alternative source of income.
3. As most of the land was acquired by the rich landlords, the poor had tiny plots of land which could not provide work for all the members of the household. So when merchants came around and offered advances to produce goods for them, peasant households eagerly agreed.
4. By working for the merchants, the poor peasants and the artisans could continue to remain in the countryside and cultivate their small plots. Income from proto-industrial production supplemented their shrinking income from cultivation. It also allowed them a fuller use of their family labour resource.

10. Why were most of the producers reluctant to use the new technology? Explain by giving examples.

New technologies and machines were expensive, so the producers and the industrialists were cautious about using them.

• The machines often broke down and the repair was costly.
• They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.
• Poor peasants and migrants moved to cities in large numbers in search of jobs. So the supply of workers was more than the demand. Therefore, workers were available at low wages.
• A range of products could be produced only with hand labour. Machines were oriented to producing uniform, standardized goods for a mass market. But the demand in the market was often for the goods with intricate designs and specific shapes.

11. “The process of industrialization brought with it miseries for the newly emerged class of industrial workers.” Explain.
                                   Or
What were the adverse impact of industrialization on the workers? Explain.

1. More workers than the demand:- There was an abundance of workers in the market than the demand. This had an adverse impact on the lives of the workers. Due to the shortage of work, most of the workers failed to get jobs.

2. Seasonality of work:- After the busy season was over, the poor were on the streets again. Some returned to the countryside after the winter, when the demand for labour in the rural areas opened up in places.

3. Low real wages:- Though the wages increased somewhat in the early 19^th century, but the increase was nullified(neutralized) by increase in prices. During the Napoleonic wars, the real wages fell significantly.

4. Poverty and unemployment:- At the best of times, till the mid 19^th century, about 10 percent of the urban population were extremely poor. The unemployment rate was also very high.

12. Why did East India Company appoint Gomasthas to supervise weavers in India?

The Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade and establish a more direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth.

13. Where and by whom was the first jute mill set up in India?

The first jute mill was started in Calcutta in 1917 by a Marwari businessman Seth Hukumchand.

14. What was Flying Shuttle? What was it's function?

Flying Shuttle is a mechanical device used for weaving, moved by means of ropes and pullies. It placed the horizontal thread into vertical thread.

15. Who was Richard Arkwright?

Richard Arkwright created cotton mill which marked the beginning of factory system.

16. What was Spinning Jenny?

Spinning Jenny was invented by James Hargreaves in 1764. This machine speeded up the spinning process and reduced labour demand. By turning on wheel, number of spindles could be set in motion and spin several threads.

17. Why were handmade goods preferred by the British upper classes?

Handmade goods were better finished, carefully designed and symbolished refinement and class. There was no duplication of design.

18. Who were gomasthas?

Gomasthas were paid servants, appointed to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth.