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1.Explain the inputs,processes and outputs of a rubber plantation.

Planting of Rubber Trees  : The work of a rubber plantation is done very scientifically. Every tree of a rubber estate is carefully looked after. For this, some special type of laborers are employed. Rubber is planted from the seedlings, and becomes ready for tapping in 6 or 7 years. For making the rubber plants high-yielding, its seedlings are grafted. This is done in a very interesting way. When the seedlings are about 5 or 6 cm in diameter, buds from the selected high-yielding trees are grafted on to the seedlings. This is done to transmit the high-yielding quality of the “mother-tree”. The graft is, then, kept bound and left for a few weeks. After a few weeks the grafted buds sprout. Then, the old tree is cut off just above the point of union. The grafted seedlings are, then, planted in row 5 or 6 meters apart from each other. In order to conserve the soil and its fertility, some crop covers (leguminous creepers etc.) are planted in between the seedling trees. During the period of its growth, planters take all the measures against pest and diseases. Manure and fertilizer are regularly added.

Rubber Tapping  : Tapping is done by wounding the bark of the rubber trees. It is done by making a cut at between one and a half meters from the ground at an angle of about 30° to the horizontal. The cut is about 2 mm deep. It is made in such a way as to sever the latex tube but not to damage cambian - a paper like skin between the bark and the wood. When the liquid latex flows out, it is collected in vessels. Tapping of the trees is usually done on alternate days. Tapping starts before six in the morning, and the collection of latex is completely before noon. Tapping work is done generally by hand. It is very laborious job and requires considerable skill. There are several tapping system practiced in Malaysia, but the most popular is a “Sloping Cut” made half way round the circumference of the tree.

Rubber Processing :The latex obtained from the tree is treated chemically at the plantation factory. After the collection of latex, it is sieved to remove the foreign matter. After this, it is put into tanks and coagulated or thickened by the addition of acetic or formic acid. Each tank may have several aluminum partitions that allow the coagulated rubber to be removed in thick slabs. The slabs are, then washed with acid and passed through rollers which press them into the rubber.

2. Describe the Green revolution.

Green revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. The Green revolution led to sizable increases in returns to land, and hence raised farmers incomes. Moreover, with greater income to spend, new needs for farm inputs, and milling and marketing services, farm families led a general increase in demand for goods and services. This stimulated the rural nonfarm economy, which in turn grew and generated significant new income and employment of its own. The Green revolution also contributed to better nutrition by raising incomes and reducing prices, which permitted people to consume more calories and a more diversified diet. Big increases occurred in per capita consumption of vegetable oils, fruits, vegetables, and livestock products in Asia. Overall, the Green revolution was a major achievement for many developing countries and gave them an unprecedented level of national food security. It represented the successful adaptation and transfer of the same scientific revolution in agriculture that the industrial countries had already appropriated for themselves. The Green revolution also lifted large numbers of poor people out of poverty and helped many non poor people avoid the poverty and hunger they would have experienced had the Green revolution not occurred. The largest benefits to the poor were mostly indirect, in the form of lower food prices, increased migration opportunities, and greater employment in the rural nonfarm economy. The direct benefits to the poor through their own on-farm adoption, greater agricultural employment, and empowerment have been more mixed and depend heavily on local socioeconomic conditions. In many cases inequalities between regions and communities that adopted Green revolution technologies and those that did not also worsened. At the same time, the Green revolution had many negative environmental impacts that have still to be adequately redressed.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Green revolution farming.

The advantages of Green revolution farming are :

   1. Yields are two or four times greater than traditional verities.
   2. The shorter growing season has allowed the introduction of an extra crop in some areas.
   3. Farming incomes have increased , allowing the purchase of machinery, better seeds, fertilizers and pesticides.
   4. The diet of rural communities is now more varied.
   5. Local infrastructure has been upgraded to accommodate a stronger market approach.
   6. Employment has been created in industries supplying farms with inputs.
   7.  Higher returns have justified a significant increase in irrigation.

The disadvantages of Green revolution farming are :

   1. High inputs of fertilizers and pesticides are required to optimize production. Tjis is costly in both economic and environmental terms. In some areas rural indebtedness has risen sharply.
   2. High yielding varieties require more weed controls and are often more susceptible to pests and diseases
   3. Middle and higher income farmers have often benefited much more than the majority of low incomes, thus widening the income gap in rural communities. Increased rural to urban migration has often been the result.
   4. Mechanization has increased rural unemployment.
   5. Some high yielding varieties have an inferior taste.
   6. The problem of salinization has increased along with the expansion of the irrigated area.

4. Explain the changes in which wheat farming of Canada has changed over time.

Wheat is grown throughout Canada, but the major area is in the western Prairie region. There are two broad categories of wheat varieties: durum and non-durum. Depending on quality, durum wheat is used by the pasta industry, and non-durum is used by either the milling industry or the livestock feed industry. Wheat was first grown in the early 1600s. Since then there have been many changes.

   1. The family farm has grown from a few hand worked hectares to a large highly mechanized unit.
   2. New strains of wheat can withstand lower temperatures and a shorter growing season. This is 20 days less than in the early nineteenth century.
   3. Today’s wheat is resistant to many diseases which once destroyed huge areas of crops.
   4. Inputs of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides have steadily measured.
   5. Ploughing is now little used as it increases soil erosion by making the top soil more likely to drift. Instead cultivators cut weeds below the surface without turning the soil.
   6. A modern combine harvesters allow one person to harvest more than 2000 bushels a day. Farmers now spend 10-15 per cent of their income on machinery and equipment, including repairs.

The Canadian department of Agriculture spends a substantial amount of money on research and developments for wheat and other agricultural products to ensure the industry remains productive and competitive to world markets.

5. Why is sheep farming in Australia considered to be extensive farming?

Farming is an economically and culturally important part of life in Australia. Many Australians are directly or indirectly involved in farming. For those Australians not involved with farming, the country's recent rural and agricultural history still has strong links to the heritage and culture of Australia. Australia is home to about 68 million sheep. Historically, the sheep farming industry produced mainly wool, and wool production still comprises the largest share of industry revenue. Sheep farming in Australia occupies an area of about 85 million hectares, making it one of Australia’s major land use. Australia is the world’s leading sheep producing country with a total of about 120 million sheep. As well as being the largest wool producer and exporter, Australia is also the largest exporter of live sheep and a major exporter of lamb and mutton. The sheep and wool industry is an important sector of Australia’s economy. Sixteen percent of Australia’s sheep are bred for meat production and are a mixture of breeds. The remaining 9 percent are a mixture of Merino and cross- bred sheep used for wool and meat production. There are about 60000 sheep farms in Australia overall, carrying from a few hundred sheep to over 100000 animals.

6. Describe the three geographical zones where sheep are kept.

Sheep and wool production occurs in three geographical zones. They are :

    1. High rainfall coastal zones.
    2. Wheat/ sheep intermediate zone.
    3. Pastoral interior zone.

About a quarter of all sheep are farmed in the pastoral zone. Sheep farming in Australia in general is extensive in nature but this type of agriculture is at its most extensive in the pastoral zone, which is the arid and semi arid inland areas. In the pastoral zone the density of sheep per hectare is extremely low due to the poor quality of forage.  In the coastal and intermediate zones the best land is reserved for arable farming, dairy and beef cattle and market gardening. Sheep are frequently kept on the more marginal areas, where more profitable types of farming are not viable.

7. Briefly discuss the main issues affecting sheep farming in Australia today.

The main issues in Australian sheep farming areas are :

    1. Weed infestation which is difficult to control on very large extensive farms which yield relatively small profits per hectare.
    2. Destruction of wildlife habitats due to sheep grazing, particularly in marginal areas.
    3. The occurrence of periodic droughts which make farming conditions even more difficult in low rainfall areas.
    4. Soil loss from wind erosion and loss of soil structure. In some areas this is transforming traditional mainstream farming areas into marginal lands.
    5. Animal welfare, particularly in the most inhospitable environments where the low human input means that individual animals may not be seen for long periods of time.
    6. Increasing concern about the shortage of experienced sheep shearers. Many have left the industry because of poor working conditions and the attraction of better paid jobs in the mining industry and else where.

8. What are the causes of food shortages?

About 800 million people in the world suffer from hunger. The problem is mainly concentrated in Africa but it also has an impact on a number Asian and Latin American countries. Food shortages can occur because of both natural and human problems. The natural problems that can lead to food shortages include :
   1. Soil exhaustion
   2. Drought
   3. Floods
   4. Tropical cyclones
   5. Pests
   6. Disease

Economic and political factors can also contribute to food shortages. Such factors include :

   1. Low capital investment.
   2. Rapidly rising population.
   3. Poor distribution / transport difficulties.
   4. Conflict situations.

9. What is food aid and describe the different types of food aid?

Food Aid is internationally distributed humanitarian famine relief and emergency food assistance

Program Food Aid  : This is a form of “in-kind aid” whereby food is grown in the donor country for distribution or sale abroad. This is typically a government to government transfer. Rather than being free food as such, recipient countries typically purchase the food with money borrowed at lower than market interest rates.

Relief, or Emergency Food Aid  : This is typically for emergency situations, such in cases of war, natural disasters, etc, where food is distributed for free. However, as Oakland Institute notes, a number of countries facing some forms of chronic food insecurity have also become permanent recipients of this form of aid.

Project Food Aid : This is food aid delivered as part of a specific project related to promoting agricultural or economic development, nutrition and food security, such as food for work and school feeding programs.

10. Explain the nutrient cycle in the rainforests.

Rainforest ecosystems are characterized by heavy convectional rainfall, high humidity, lushness of vegetation and nutrient-rich but shallow soil. These factors give rise to a unique water and nutrient cycle. The roots of plants take up water from the ground and the rain is intercepted as it falls - much of it at the canopy level. As the rainforest heats up, the water evaporates into the atmosphere and forms clouds to make the next day's rain. This is convectional rainfall. he rainforest nutrient cycling is rapid. The hot, damp conditions on the forest floor allow for the rapid decomposition of dead plant material. This provides plentiful nutrients that are easily absorbed by plant roots. However, as these nutrients are in high demand from the rainforests many fast-growing plants, they do not remain in the soil for long and stay close to the surface of the soil. If vegetation is removed, the soils quickly become infertile and vulnerable to erosion. If the rainforest is cleared for agriculture it will not make very good farmland, as the soil will not be rich in nutrients. In the rainforest, most of the carbon and essential nutrients are locked up in the living vegetation, dead wood, and decaying leaves. As organic material decays, it is recycled so quickly that few nutrients ever reach the soil, leaving it nearly sterile. Decaying matter is processed so efficiently because of the abundance of decomposers including bacteria, fungi, and termites. These organisms take up nutrients, which are released as wastes when organisms die. Virtually all organic matter is rapidly processed, even fecal matter and perspiration. It is only a matter of minutes, in many rainforests, before dung is discovered and utilized by various insects. Excrement can be covered with brightly colored butterflies, beetles, and flies, while dung beetles feverishly roll portions of the waste into balls for use later as larval food. Insects are not only attracted to dung for the energy value, but often for the presence of nutrients like calcium salts. Human sweat is a treasure for several species of butterflies, which gather on the necks and hats of tourists, and for annoying sweat bees, which can cover seemingly every inch of exposed skin in some forests. As vegetation dies, the nutrients are rapidly broken down and almost immediately returned to the system as they are taken up by living plants. Uptake of nutrients by plant roots is facilitated by a unique relationship between the roots and a fungi, mycorrhiza. The mycorrhiza attach to plant roots and are specialized to increase the efficiency of nutrient uptake nutrient from the soil. In return, plants provide the fungi with sugars and shelter among their roots. Studies have also shown that mycorrhiza can help a tree resist drought and disease.

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