1. Briefly trace the process of German unification?
Germany was a disunited country till the middle of the 19th century. German unification was a long and complicated process. In the beginning of the 19th century Germany was a collection of 39 autocratic states. Otto von Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia, was the chief architect of the German nation. This process was carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. He fought three wars over seven years to complete the process of political unification. He fought a war against Denmark  and took control of Schleswig in 1865. In 1866 A.D. Prussia defeated Australia and annexed the territories of Hanover, Luxembourg, Frankfurt. etc. thereby dissolving the German confederation once for all. It paved the way for the subsequent unification of Germany. In 1870 A.D., Prussia defeated France in another war and occupied Alsace and Lorraine. The impact of Prussia’s impressive victories was so great that the other Germany states also joined the German Confederation.Thus the unification of Germany was accomplished by 1871. On January 18, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles William – I ,the king of Prussia, was crowned as German Emperor and the ceremony symbolised in the eyes of the world the newly born unity of the German people.
2.What were the immediate results of the July 1830 revolution?

(i) As a result of the Revolution of 1830, the Bourbon kings who had been restored to power by the Congress of Vienna were over thrown by the revolutionaries and constitutional monarchy established with Louis Philippe as its head.

(ii) It sparked on uprising in Brussels which led Belgium to break away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

3.Write a note on the Frankfurt Parliament.

In 1848, the German middle class decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly and hence came to Frankfurt. Around 831 persons were elected who comprised the National Assembly. The assembly decided to organise Frankfurt Parliament in the church of St. Paul. Thus, on 18 May, 1848 the famous Frankfurt Parliament was convened.
It was decided by the Assembly that the German nation would be a monarchy controlled by parliament, and the assembly offered these terms to the Prussian king, who rejected the terms and proposals of the assembly. Also, the middle classes were restored to the suppression of working-class and artisans, which led to the division among the liberal minded persons. So the parliament got disrupted and the people came to blows. In order to control the situation, military was called in the assembly hall.
Thus the monarchy and military, combined with autocracy, won over the liberal nationalist middle class. Because of this reason, the Frankfurt parliament is famous in history as a failure of liberalism and a victory of monarchy.

4. Who were the main architects of the unification of Germany?

The main architects were:
(i) The Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
(ii) The Prussian King William I.

5. The advantages of the administrative changes brought about by Napoleon were outweighed by which things? Mention two such factors?
The advantages of the administrative changes brought by Napoleon were outweighed by: (i) increased taxation, (ii) censorship and, (iii) forced recruitment in the French army conscription.

6. Mention two ways in which Europe benefited from French rule?
In the areas occupied by Napoleon the feudal system was abolished and uniform laws and standardized weights and measures were introduced.

7. State two important political and constitutional changes which came in the wake of the French revolution?

The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French revolution of 1789 were:
(i) The French revolution gave the people the concept of ‘nation’.
(ii) Transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens, i.e., National Assembly.
(iii) It was the people who would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

8. Why was Napoleonic rule over other regions unpopular with some sections of the people?

Initially in many places like Holland and Switzerland the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. The administrative changes gave peasants, artisans and small businessmen a new freedom. But the French imperialistic designs outweighed the advantages following these changes.
Factors
(i) Areas occupied by the French armies were made subservient to the French needs.
(ii) Increased taxation.
(iii) Censorship
(iv) Forced conscription into French armies to conquer other lands.
(v) The new administrative arrangements did not go hand-in-hand with political freedom.

9. Give two reasons why the ideology of liberalism and nationalism were late in developing in central and eastern Europe.

The ideology of liberalism and nationalism were late in developing in central and eastern Europe because:
(i) In central and eastern Europe, industrialization began only in the late nineteenth century.
(ii) Social groups like working class and educated middle class were smaller in number.
(iii) It was among the educated liberal middle class that ideas of national unity and liberalism gained popularity and since this class grew later in central and Eastern Europe, the ideology of liberalism and nationalism also developed later as compared to Britain and Western Europe.

10. Briefly discuss the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna.

 Treaty of Vienna in 1815 was made by the ‘Big Five’, representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, the powers which had collectively defeated Napoleon and France.
(i) Restored the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and created a new conservative order in Europe. E.g., Bourbon dynasty in France.
(ii) France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
(iii) A series of strong states were set up on the boundaries of France, to contain it and prevent French expansion in future. E.g., Kingdom of Netherlands which included Belgium was set up in the north, and Genoa added to Piedmont in the south.
(iv) Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
 (v) In the East, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxong.
(vi) It sought to maintain a balance of power in Europe so as to prevent any one power from demanding too large an area in Europe.
(vii) It underestimated the dynamism of nationalism. Territories such as Norway, Belgium and Finland were used as pawns, regardless of the wishes of the inhabitants.

11. What distinguished the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 from other risings of 1820s? What was the similarity?

Distinguished features: Unlike the other risings of 1820s,
(i) The revolution of 1830 and 1848 were liberal revolts led by broader elements of the wealthy middle class.
(ii) They were primarily protects against the rigidities and shortcomings of the conservative policies adopted since 1815.
Similarity: What they had in common with other uprisings of 1820s was a desire to bring governments into closer relationship with society, as society had developed to that date.

12. Distinguish between revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

(i) Unlike the revolution of 1830s the revolutions of 1848 were marked by two different kinds of popular insurrections. Those in France, Switzerland and disturbances in Britain and Belgium were democratic protests borne out of political frustrations due to inadequacies and exclusiveness of middle class governments. They demanded social and democratic reforms.
(ii) Most of the revolutions in Italy, Germany, Austria and Hungary were nationalist and popular insurrections against foreign rules. They were against the repressive policy of Metternich and his allies who kept aspirations for national unifications and constitutionalism at bay.
(iii) Another distinguishing factor is the list of countries which escaped the 1848's revolution. In Britain and Belgium there were disturbances. The revolution did not occur in  Poland and Russia. The revolution was pre-eminently Central European events. They happened in territories of Germany, Switzerland ,Italy and the peasant countries of the Balkans.
(iv) The revolutions of 1848 were in origin and impetus the work of towns e.g. in London and Birmingham, Paris and Brussels, Rome and Berlin, Vienna and Budapest.
(v) Leadership came from intellectuals, university professors and students, journalists and poets.

13. What were the two main political, social and economic consequences of the revolution of 1848?

Consequences of the revolution of 1848:
(i) Events of February 1848 in France brought the abdication of the monarch  Louis Philippe and France proclaimed a republic based on universal male suffrage.
(ii) In Europe it marked the end of the rule of Metternich and secured the overthrow of his ‘system’ which had prevailed since 1815.
(iii) Its greatest social and economic consequence was the destroyal of feudalism. Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished, both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
(iv) More autonomy was granted by the Habsburg rulers to the Hungarians in 1867.

14. Briefly trace the process of Italian unification
         Like Germany, Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. By 1871, Italy’s political unification was complete. The mantle of Italian unification fell on King of Sardinia Piedmont and its chief architect was Cavour, the chief minister of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont. Italian Unification was a result of diplomatic alliances and a series of diplomatic moves, military events and astute calculations of Cavour and the support of Giuseppe Garibaldi. The north under Austrian Habsburg was acquired by Cavour through tactful diplomatic alliances with France and by defeat of Austrian forces in 1859. Giuseppe Garibaldi with armed volunteers, acquired the southern kingdom of Italy and two Sicilies by driving out the Spanish rulers in the famous expedition of the Thousand of South Italy. In 1861, only Venetia and the Papal city of Rome remained unincorporated. These were added in 1866 and 1870 as a result of Bismarck’s defeats of Austria and France. As with Germany, strong nationalist feelings were widespread among the ruling elite of the region and middle class Italians. Though failed, as early as in 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini, founder of a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. Homogeneity of language, strong nationalist cultural movements, growth of rail roads and possibility of economic development and political dominance all were factors which prepared the ground for Italian unification prior to it becoming a reality.

15. Give four factors which contributed to the great economic hardships in 1830's in Europe?
     Factors which contributed to the great economic hardships of the 1830’s in Europe were:
(i) Enormous increase in population leading to unemployment in most countries. There were more seekers of job than employment.
(ii) Migration of population from rural to urban areas.
(iii) Imports of cheap machine- made textile goods displaced many who were engaged in textile production in homes or small workshops.
(iv) In central and eastern Europe where aristocracy still enjoyed privileges, peasants struggled due to feudal dues and obligations.
(v) Bad harvests and rising food prices added to pauperism of towns and countries.