1. What are the features of Bedouins life in the early seventh century?

     The Bedouins were nomadic Arab tribes, moving from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food mainly dates and fodder for their camels. Some settled in cities and practiced trade or agriculture.

2. What is meant by the term 'Abbasid revolution'?

     A well organized movement called ‘Dawa’ brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan orgin the Abbasids. In 750 the Abbasids portrayed the Umayyad regime as evil and promised a restoration of the original Islam of the prophet. The Abbasid revolution led not only to a change of dynasty but changes in the political and culture of Islam. The uprising broke out in a distant region of Khurasan. The civilian Arabs of Khurasan resented the Umayyad regime for giving false promises of tax concessions and previleges. For the Iranian Muslims, they were exposed to the scorn of race, conscious Arabs were ready to oust the Umayyads. The Abbasids were led by Abu Muslin, who defeated the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan and took power.

3. What were the effects of the Crusades on Europe and Asia?

     In the first crusade, soldiers from France and Italy fought against Antioch in Syria and claimed Jerusalem. Which was accompanied by the slaughter of Muslims and Jews. The Franks established four crusader states in the region of Syria-Palestine. After the second crusade there was a gradual erosion of the strength of churches was turned to mosques and Jerusalem once again become a Muslim city. The third crusade did not gave much gain except for some coastal towns in Palestine and free access to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims. In 1921, the Mamluks, rulers of Egypt drove the Christians out of Palestine in 1291. Europe gradually lost military interest in Islam and focused on its internal political and cultural development. The crusades left two aspects of Christian-Muslim relation. One the harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects the other was the greater influence of Italian mercantile communities in the trade between the east and the west.

4. How were the Islamic architectural forms different from those of the Roman Empire?

     The building of Muslims, especially the mosque acquired a distinct architectural form (roof supported by pillars). It had an open courtyard where a fountain or pond was placed. Leadeay to a vaulted hall. Inside the hall were a niche and a pulpit. The same pattern of constriction was seen in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces. The palaces modeled on Roman and Sasanian architecture were lavishly decorated with sculptures. Mosaics and paintings of people. The great palaces of Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad or Fatimid’s in Cairo disappeared.

5. How was the economic activities carried on in the Islamic states?

     Agriculture was the main occupation of the population. Land was owned by big and small peasants and in some cases by the state the estate owners collected taxes on behalf of the state Duruy Sasanian and Islamic period. In areas that had moved from a pastoral to a settled agricultural system, land was the common property of the village. Finally big estates that were abandoned by their owners after the Islamic conquests were acquired by the state and handed over to the Muslim elites of the empire especially members of caliphs family the state had its income from land revenue. Later the state authorized its officials to claim their salaries from agricultural revenues from territories called iqtas, the state supported irrigation systems, the construction of dams and canals and digging of well, all of which were important for good harvests. Colton, Oranges, Bananas, Water melons, Spinach and bring is were grown and exported to Europe.

6. How was the Caliphate established after Muhammad’s death in 632?

     After Muhammad’s death in 632 no one could legitimately claim to be the next prophet of Islam. As a result, his political authority was transferred to umma, with no established principle of secession. This created opportunities for innovations but also caused deep divisions among Muslims. The first four caliphs justified their powers on the basis of their close association with the prophet and continued his work under the general guidelines he provided.

7. What were the administrative reforms carried by the Umayyad?

     The Umayyad implemented a series of political measures which consdidated their leadership within the Umma. The first Umayyad Caliph moved his capital to Damascus and adopted the court ceremonies and administrative hereditary succession. The Umayyad state was now an imperial power, no longer based directly on Islam. But on statecraft and the loyalty of Syrian troops. There were Christian advisers in the administration as well as Zoroastrian scribes and bureaucrats. Islam continued to provide legitimacy totheir rule. The Umayyads always appealed for unity and suppressed rebellions in the name of Islam. They retained Arab social identity. Arabic was adopted as language of administration and the introduction of an Islamic coinage. Development of Arab-Islamic identity by building the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem was made during this time.

8. How did political unification and urbanization enlarge the circuit of exchange in Islamic period?

     Geography favored the Muslim empire, which spread between the trading zones of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolized the maritime trade between, China, India and Europe. This trade passed through major router namely, the Red seo and the Persian Gulf. High value goods, suitable for long distance trade such as spices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder were shipped from India and china to the Red sea ports of Aden and Aydhab and Gulf ports of Siraf and Basra. From here the merchandise was carried overland in camel caravans to the ware houses of Baghdad. Damascus and Aleppo for local consumption or onward transmission. Trade developed in Mecca when it coincided with the hajj season. At the Mediterranean, exports to Europe from port of Alexandria were handled by Jewish merchants, some directly traded with India. Red sea route gained importance due to the rise of Cairo as a centre of commerce. Towards the eastern end, Jranian merchants set out from Baghdad along the Silk route to china to bring central Asian and Chinese goods including paper.

9. How did the Sufis preach the idea of religion?

     Sufis of medieval Islam sought a deeper and more personal knowledge of God through asceticism and mysticism. The more society gave itself up to material pursuits and pleasures, the more the Sufis sought to renounce the world and rely on God alone. In the eighth and ninth centuries, ascetic inclinations were elevated to the higher stage of mysticism by the ideas of Pantheism and love. Sufism is open to all regardless of religious affiliation, status and gender. Sufism gained popularity and posed a challenge to orthodox Islam.

10. How did the study of new subjects promote critical inquiry and influence the Islamic Intellectual life?

Scholars with a theological bent of mind, known as Mutazila, used Greek logic and methods of reasoning to defend Islamic beliefs. Philosophers posed wider questions and provided fresh answers. Ibn Sina did not believe in the resurrection of the body on the day of Judgment. This was met with strong opposition from theologians. His famous wrcteay was al-Qanunfil Tibb. In medieval Islamic societies, fine language and a creative imagination were among the most appreciated qualities in a person. These Qualities raised a person’s communication to the level of adab. The most popular poetic composition was the ode developed by poets of Abhasid period to glorify the achievements of their patrons. By the time Arabs conquered Iran, a new form of Pahlavi. New Persian, with huge Arabic vocabulary, soon developed At the beginning of eleventh century, Ghazni, became the centre of Persian literary life. Court poets and great men adorned his court. The Shahnama is a collection of traditions and legends. Which depicts Iran from creation up until the Arab conquest? Large number of books for moral education and amusement were written the oldest of it was Kalilawa Dimna. From the ninth century onwards, adab was expanded to include biographies, manuals of ethics, Mirrors for princes and history and geography. Historical works concluded Ansab al-Ashraf of Baladhuri and Tarikh-al-Rasul Wal Muluk. Of Tabari, the whole of human history was treated with the Islamic period as the focal point.

11. Who was the father of New Persian poetry?

By the time the Arabs conquered Iran, Pahlavi, the language of the sacred books of ancient Iran, was in decay. A version of Pahlavi, known as New Persian, with a huge Arabic vocabulary, soon developed, The formation of sultanates in Khurasan and Transoxiana took New Persian to great cultural heights. The Samanid court poet Rudaki (d.940) was considered the father of New Persian poetry, which included new forms such as the short lyrical poem (ghazal) and the quatrain (rubai, plural rubaiyyat). The rubai is a four – line stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised, and the fourth delivers the point. In contrast to its form, the subject matter of the rubai unrestricted. It can be used to express the beauty of a beloved, praise a patron, or express the thoughts of the philosopher. The rubai reached its zenith in the hands of Umar Khayyam (1048-1131), also an astronomer and mathematician, who lived at various times in Bukhara, Samarqand and Isfahan.

12. Describe the Arab’s contribution in other fields?

Arab’s contribution in other fields:
     (i). The Arabs propounded the ideal equality and brotherhood.
     (ii). Arab carpets, leather works, metal work beautiful swords and enameled glass.

13. What do you know about the Dome of the Rock?

The Dome of the Rock, built over  a rocky mound by Abd  al Malik, is the earliest  major work of Islamic architecture. Created as a monument to the Muslim presence in the city of Jerusalem, it acquired a mystical associated connected with the night Journey of the Prophet to Heaven (miraj).

14. What do you know about the great mosue of al- Mutawwakil in Samarra?

The Great Mosque of al-Mutawwakil in Samarra (the second Abhasid capital) built in 850. The minar is 50 meters high, and is made of bricks Inspired by Mesopotamian architectural traditions, this was the largest mosque in the world for centuries.

15. Write down the verse which was inscribed on a Moue lamp.

'Gods is the Light (nur) of the heaves and the earth His light is like a niche (mishkat) with a lamp (misbath). The lamp is in a glass which looks as if it were a glittering star Kindled from a blessed olive (zaitun) tree that is neither eastern nor western. Whose oil would always shine even if no fire (nar) touched it.

16. Why was Muhammad forced to migrate with his follower to Medina?

The Muslims soon faced considerable opposition from affluent Meccans who took offence to the rejection of their deities and found the new religion a threat to the status and prosperity of Mecca. In 622, Muhammad  was forced to migrate with his followers to Medina Muhammad's journey from Mecca (hijra) was a turning point in the history of Islam, with the year of his arrival in Medina marking beginning of the Muslim calendar.

17. What was the importance of Mecca?

Mecca was located on the crossroads  of a trade route between Yemen and Syria which further enhanced the city's importance. The Meccan shrine was a sanctuary (haram) where violence was forbidden and protection given all visitors. Pilgrimage and commerce given to nomadic and settled tribes opportunities to communicate with one another and share their beliefs and customs. Although the polytheistic  Arabs were vaguely familiar with the notion of Supreme God, Allah (possibly under the influence of the jewish and christina tribes living in their midst), their attachment to idol and strines was more immediate and stronger.

18. How did the Arabs succeed in building up a vast empire in less than a hundred years?

The Arabs were the excellent fighters who soon laid the foundation of a vast empire extending upto Iran, Syria, Egypt, Central Asia, Africa and Spain. The Arabs were very successful merchants. They had the trade relations with such far off countries as Rome, Greece, Africa, India and many countries of Central Asia. The spread of Islam in Arabia also contributed a lot in their quick progress. It united the warring tribes of Arabs and gave them unity which is a first requisite for advancement. The Arabs borrowed knowledge from whatever source they could and developed it still further.

19. Why Muhammad  called himself the messenger of God?

Around 612, muhammad declared himself to be the messenger (rasul) of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah alone should be worshipped. The worship involved simple rituals, such as daily prayers (salat), and moral principles, such as distributing alms and  abstaining from theft. Muhammad was to found a community of believers (umma) bound by a common set of religious (shahada) to the existence of the religion before religious communities. Muhammad;s message particularly appealed to those Meccans who felt deprived of the gains from trade and religion and were looking for a new community identity. Those who accepted the doctrine were called Muslims. They were promised salvation on the Day Judgment (qiyama) and a share of the resources of the community while on earth.

20. Write a short note on Shahnama.

At the beginning of the eleventh century, Ghazni became the centre of Persian literary life. Poets were naturally attrached by the brilliance of the imperial court. Rulers, too, realised the importance of patronising arts and learning for enhancing their prestige. Mahmud of Ghazni gathered around him a group of poets who composed anthologies (diwans) and epic poetry (mathnavi). The most outstanding was Firdausi (d.1020), who took 30 years to complete the Shahnama (Book of kings), an epic of 50,000 couplets which has become a masterpiece of Islamic literature. The Shahnama is a collection of traditions and legends (the most popular being that of Rustam), which poetrically depicts Iran from creation up until the Arab conquest. It was in keeping with the Ghaznavi tradition that Persian later became the language of administration and culture in India.

21. Why hostility towards the Muslim world became more pronounced in the 11th century?

Normans, Hungarians and some slaves had been converted to Christianity, and the Muslims alone remained as the main enemy. There was also a change in the social and economic organization of Western Europe in the eleventh century which contributed to the hostility between Christendom and the Islamic world. The clergy and the warrior class were making efforts to ensure political stability as well as economic growth based on agriculture and trade. The possibilities of military confrontation between competing feudal principalities and a return to economic organization based on plunder were contained by the Peace of God movement. All military violence was forbidden inside certain periods considered sacred in the Church’s calendar, and against certain vulnerable social groups, such as churchmen and the common people. The Peace of God deflected the aggressive tenancies of feudal society away from the Christian world and towards the 'enemies' of God. It built a climate in which fighting against the infidels (non-believers) became not only permissible but also commendable.

22. Mention some of the famous literary work during Arabic period.

The catalogue (Kitab al- Fihrist) of a Baghdad bookseller, Ibn Nadim (d.895), describe a large number of works written in prose for the moral education and amusement of readers. The oldest of these is a collection of animal fables called Kalila was Dimna (the names of the two jackals who were the leading characters) which is the Arabic translation of a Pahlavi version of the Panchtantra. The most widespread lasting literary works are the stories of hero adventurers such as Alexander (al-Iskandar) and Sindbad, or those of un- happy lover such as Quays (known as Majnum or the Madman).These have developed over the centuries into oral and written traditions. The thoudands and one Nights is another collection was originally in Indo Persian and was translated into Arabic in Baghdad in the eighth century. More stories were stories were later added in cairo during the mamluk period. These stories depict human beings of different types the generous, the stupid the gullible, he crafty- and were told to education and entertain. In his Kitab al- Bukhala (Book of Misers), Jahiz of Basra (d. 868) collected amusing anecdotes about miserse and also analyzed greed.

23. Explain the architecture of Islamic world during the 10th century.

1.  By the tenth century, an Islamic world had emerged which was easily recognizable by travelers. Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of this world. Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to central Asia showed the same basic design arches, domes , minarets and open courtyards and expressed the spiritual and practical needs of Muslims. In the first Islamic century, the mosque acquired a distinct architectural form (roof supported by pillars) which transcended regional variations. The mosque had an open courtyard (sahn) where a fountain or pond was placed, leading to a vaulted hall which could accommodate long lines of worshippers and the prayer leader (iman). Two special features were located inside the hall: a niche (mihrab) in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca (qibla(, and a pulpit (minbar, pronounce mimbar) from where sermons were delivered during noon prayers on Friday. Attached to the building was the minaret, a tower used to call the faithful to prayer at the appointed times and to symbolize the presence of the new faith. Time was marked in cities and villages by the five daily prayers and weekly sermons.

2.   The same pattern of construction - of buildings built around a central courtyard (iwan) - appeared not only in mosques and mausoleums but also in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces. The Umayyads built 'desert palaces' in oases, such as Khirbat al-Mafjar in Palestine and Qusayr Amra in Jordan, which served as luxurious residences and retreats for hunting and pleasure. The palaces, modeled on Roman and Sasanian architecture, were lavishly decorated with sculptures, mosaics and paintings of people. The Abbasids built a new imperial city in Samarra amidst gardens and running waters which is mentioned in the stories and legends revolving round Harun al-Rashid. The great palaces of the Achasid caliphs in Baghdad or the Fatimid’s in Cairo have disappeared, leaving only traces in literary texts. The rejection of representing living beings in teh religious art of Islam promoted two art forms: calligraphy (khattati or the art of beautigul writing) and arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs). Small and big inscriptions, usually of religious quotations, were used to decorate architecture. Calligraphic art has been best preserved in manuscripts of the Quran dating from the eight and ninth centuries. Literary works, such as the Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs), Kalila wa Dimna, and Maqamat of Hariri, were illustrated with miniature paintings. In addition, a wide variety of illumination techniques were introduced to enhance the beauty of a book. Plant and floral designs, based on the idea of the garden, were used in buildings and book illustrations.