1. Describe the Earth.

The Earth is spherical in shape and is so large in size that it is difficult to visualize it completely.Photographs of the Earth taken by satellites in space show the Earth as a sphere.Only one half of the Earth can be seen at a time as the other half is hidden from the Sun.

2. What is the Globe?

The globe is an accurate representation of the Earth in three dimensions.The globe is spherical in shape and is a model of the Earth on a small scale.It shows the distribution of continents and oceans, major relief features, countries, chief cities and other features.Lines of latitude and longitude are also marked on the globe.The globe shows the relative sizes and shapes of continents and other features correctly.

3. What are photographs?

Photographs assist in the preparation of accurate maps of the Earth.Aerial photographs and satellite pictures cover a large part of the Earth and these have been used to survey the resources in an area.

4. What are maps?

Maps are drawn to represent the Earth as a whole or parts of it drawn to scale on a flat surface. Maps are used widely to represent the Earth. It shows selected features only and they do not appear congested like photographs.

5. What are the advantages of maps?

The advantages of maps are :
         (i)   Maps are drawn to represent the Earth as a whole or parts of it drawn to scale on a flat surface.
        (ii)    Maps are used widely to represent the Earth.
       (iii)   They are easy to handle and they can be taken to the field by explorers or tourists.
       (iv)   Maps generally use signs and symbols in different colors and this adds to their legibility.
       (v)    Maps may be drawn to show the main features of a particular distribution.

6. What are the disadvantages of maps?

The main disadvantages of maps is that the curved surface of the Earth cannot be represented accurately on a flat surface. The distortion may be in size, shape or distances. Maps of small areas may be free from such distortions.

7. What are the types of maps?

Maps are usually classified into different kinds based on the purposes for which they are used.The following are the types of maps.

       (i)   Topographical maps
      (ii)   Cadastral maps
     (iii)   General purpose maps
     (iv)   Thematic maps
      (v)   Physical maps

8. What are topographical maps?

Topographical maps deals with the literal meaning of geography.It show much greater details about small areas.These maps are prepared based on a detailed survey of the areas concerned.The survey of India has published topographic maps covering relief features,rivers,land use,vegetation,settlements,roads,railway lines and administrative units and their boundaries.

9. What are cadastral maps?

Cadastral maps are village and town maps which show individual fields and house sites.A large scale map drawn at a scale of 1: 500 to 1:4000 to show property boundaries,designating each parcel of land with a number.

10. What are general purpose maps?

General purpose maps contain information about both the physical and cultural features.It is a simplified representation of the features on the map,appropriate to its scale or purpose,without affecting their visual form.

11. What are thematic maps?

Maps which show selected features only are called thematic maps.

12. What are physical maps?

Physical maps usually contain information about the relief features.It show natural features such as relief,geology,soils,elements of weather,climate and vegetation.

13. What are the properties of maps?

The following are the properties of maps.

         (i)   Map language
        (ii)   Legend
       (iii)  Scale of a map

14. What are the methods of a scale?

The scale of the map may be expressed using one or a combination of more than one methods of scale.The following are the methods of scale.
          (i)  Statement
         (ii)  Representative fraction
        (iii)  Graphical or linear scale

15. What is map language?

Map language involves projection of features of the spherical Earth on a flat surface.These are more than 200 projections of which zenithal,conical and cylindrical are the most commonly used.

16. What is legend?

Legend is a key to the map and gives a brief explanation of symbols,colors,transfer shapes etc usually printed at the bottom of the map.

17. What is scale of a map?

Scale of a map is the ratio or proportion between the distances on the map and the actual distances on the ground.Maps represent the surface of the Earth on a small scale on a piece of paper.Maps thus enable us to comprehend a large area and find out the spatial variations of geographical features.Maps are drawn to a scale so that relative distances of places are correct as on the Earth.

18. What is a statement?

When the scale of a map is stated as a statement,it is expressed in certain units of measurement like kilometers or miles.The indication of scale by a statement is useful for those who are familiar with that unit of measuring distance.As units of measuring distance vary from one country to another indication of scale by a statement is of limited use only.

19. What is Representative Fraction?

A more useful and accurate method of representing the scale of a map is by a ratio or fraction called the Representative Fraction or R.F. This fraction is the ratio between distances on the map and the corresponding distance on the ground.The numerator of the fractions is always 1 and this represents the distance on the map.The denominator indicates the corresponding distance on the ground.

20.  What is the formula of Representative Fraction?

A more useful and accurate method of representing the scale of a map is by a ratio or fraction called the Representative Fraction.The following are the formula of Representative Fraction.

Representative Fraction or R.F = Distance on the map / Distance on the ground

21. When the scale of a map is 1 cm to 10 km.Calculate the R.F of the map?

1 cm   =   10 km
           =   10,000 m
           =   10,000 x 100 or 10,00,000 cm
Therefore, the Representative Fraction is 1: 10,00,000

22.  When the R.F of a map is 1: 50,000. calculate the scale of the map ( in centimeters and kilometers ).

R.F of the map is 1:50,000
Therefore, 1 cm on the map
               =  50,000 cm on the ground
               =     500 m on the ground
                       Or, 2 cm on the map
               =  1 km on the ground

23. When the R.F of a map is 1:50,000.Calculate the scale of the map ( in inches and miles )?

R.F of the map is 1:50,000
Therefore, 1 inch on the map
                 = 50,000 inches on the ground
                 = 4,166.66 feet (1 foot  =  12 inches)
                 = 0.789 miles ( 1 mile  =  5280 feet )
The scale of the map may be stated as 1 inch to 0.789 miles.

24. On a map villages P and Q are marked 5 cm apart .The actual distance between them is 20 km. What is the scale of the map ?.Calculate the R.F of the map?

Distance between P and Q on the map  =  5 cm
Distance on the ground  =  20 km
Therefore, the scale of the map is 5 cm to 20 km  or 1 cm to 4 km.
R.F of the map = Distance on the map / Distance on the ground
                         = 1 cm / 4 * 1,00,000 cm ( 1 km = 1,00,000 cm)
                          = 1 / 4,00,000 or 1:4,00,000

25 .What is the  graphical or linear scale?

The graphical or linear scale is a line of convenient length divided at regular intervals and graduated in terms of distances on the ground.Using the linear scale, the distance between any two points on the map may be measured directly in terms of distance on the ground.

26. What are the uses of graphical scale?

The graphical or linear scale is very useful for the following reasons.
       (i) The relationship remains true even if the map is enlarged, reduced or only a small portion of it is used.
       (ii) It combines both verbal statement and Representative fraction.
      (iii) With the aid of co-ordinates, graphic scale can depict the geographic distance between two places as also the actual location of a place of the map.

27. What are the advantages of Representative Fraction?

The following are the advantages of Representative Fraction.

          (i)   Representative Fraction is the ratio between distances on the map and the corresponding distances on the ground.
         (ii)  The  numerator of the fraction is always 1 and this represents the distance on the map.
         (iii) The denominator indicates the corresponding distance on the ground.

28. What is measurement of distance?

Distance between any two points on the map may be measured in centimeters using the scale. The scale of the map may be used to calculate the actual distance between two points on the ground. If a linear scale is drawn on the map, the distance may be read using the linear scale.

29.  What is opisometer?  

Distances on the map may also be measured by using a simple instrument called the opisometer. It is a small wheel with teeth, tied to the end of a stick or pencil. Its revolutions are recorded on a calibrated dial to the nearest decimal point.

30. What is measurement of direction ?

Direction is usually indicated on a map by a North South line with North direction represented by an arrow head. A short line  perpendicular to this is drawn to show the East and West directions. on topographic maps, the lines of longitude represent North-South lines while the latitude lines run East  West. Both distance and direction are needed to fix the location of places on a map. Therefore, direction is as important as the scale of the map.

31. What are cardinal directions?

North,South,East and West are the main cardinal directions.North-East lies between North and East.Thus,the other like South-East,South-West and North West.

32. What is Magnetic compass?       

Magnetic compass is an instrument used to find or show directions.The North to which the compass needle points is called the Magnetic North and differs from the geographic or true North by a few degrees.

33. What do you meant by layer coloring?

Layer coloring is a method of representing relief features on wall maps and atlas maps.

34. What do you meant by spot heights?

With the development of instruments of detailed surveying,it is possible to measure the heights are marked near the points shown on the map.These are called spot heights.The spot height is shown on the map by a dot indicating the place and number giving the height above the sea level in meters or feet.

35. What are contour lines?

Contour lines are imaginary line drawn on a map joining places having the same height above the mean sea level.

36. What are contours?

Contours are isolines on a map joining places of the same heights above or below specific datum,usually seal level.The value of contour may  also be given on the higher side of the contour line.They are also called level lines.

37. What is the contour interval?

The contour interval ( C.I ) is the vertical difference between two adjacent contours on a map,that is,the vertical interval between two contours.It varies depending on the scale of the map and the range of elevation in a given area.

38. What are index contours?

Contours are numbered to indicate their height above sea level.On topographic maps,every fifth contour is drawn by a thick line and is numbered.These are called index contours.

39. What are the types of slopes?

The slopes can be broadly classified into four.They are :

           (i)   Uniform slope
           (ii)  Concave slope
          (iii)  Convex slope
          (iv)  Terraced slope

40. What are uniform slope?

In places where the contour lines are spaced uniformly,it represents a regular or uniform slope of land.The cross section drawn below the contour diagram brings out clearly the uniform slope of the land.

41. What is concave slope?

In a concave slope,the slope of the land is gentle at low elevation and becomes steep at high elevation.The spacing of contours will be far apart at lower levels and closer at higher levels.The cross section brings out clearly the concave slopes of the land. Volcanic hills have concave slopes on all sides.

42. What is convex slope?

The slope of the land is steep at low levels and gentle at high elevation. Therefore contours are closer at low elevations and further apart at higher elevations. The cross section brings out clearly the form of the convex slope. A dome mountain has convex slopes all around.

43. What is terraced slope?

When two contour lines are found closer and two wider apart, this pattern of arrangement is called terraced slope or stepped slope. Terraced slopes or stepped slopes have contour lines in pairs or twos and are found with a space between consecutive pairs of contour lines.

44. What are knolls?

Knolls are small, isolated hillocks that appear more or less rounded and are represented by almost circular contours.

45. What is conical hill ?

A hill is a land form with a submit at a high elevation. Land slopes in all directions from the summit of the hill. Where the slopes are uniform in all directions from the summit of the hill,it is called a conical hill.

46. What is a plateau?

A plateau is a flat-topped highland ( indicated by hardly any contour lines ) with steep slopes on one or more sides. A plateau is also called a tableland because it has a flat undulating surface with gentle slopes. The edges of the plateau rise steeply from the adjoining lowland closely spaced contour lines mark the steep slope which forms the edge of the plateau. The cross section brings out clearly the form of the plateau.

47. What is a ridge?

A ridge is a long,narrow sharp edged upland of hills or mountains which has many peaks.A ridge is sometimes called a range of hills.The slope of the hill may be steep or gentle.The cross section gives an idea of the form of a ridge.

48. What is escarpment?

An escarpment has a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the opposite side. The cross section shows clearly the contrast in slope between the two sides of  an escarpment.

49. What is saddle or col?

A saddle or col is a gap between two fairly high peaks of a ridge.Routes in hilly regions make use of the col or saddle to cross the hills.One has to ascend to reach the col and then descend on the other side.The cross section brings out the form of the col. Sometimes a broader col is referred to as  a saddle cols or saddles are useful for communication.A gap is usually at a lower level.

50. What is a river valley ?

A river valley is a lowland occupied by a river. Land slopes along the path of the river and down the two sides of the valley. Therefore, contours have a v-shape with the apex of the v-pointing on the upstream side.

51.  What is a spur?

A spur is a stretch of highland which extends from a ridge or a range of hills. Spurs usually lie between two valleys. Spurs are represented by V - shaped contour lines with the apex of the V - pointing towards lower ground.

52.  What is ' V ' shaped valley?

 V ' shaped valley resembles the letter V. 'V' - shaped valley occurs in mountainous areas.The lowermost part of the 'V' - shaped valley is shown by the innermost contour line with very small gap between its two sides and the lowest value of the contour is assigned to it.The contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other contour lines outward.

53.  What is ' U ' shaped valley?

' U ' shaped valley is formed by strong lateral erosion of glaciers at high attitudes.The flat wide bottom and steep sides makes it resemble the letter ' U ' . The lower most part of the U - shaped valley is shown by the innermost contour line with a wide gap between its two sides. The contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other contour lines outward.

54.  What are the features of contour lines?

The features of contour lines are :
         (i)   A contour line is drawn to show places of equal heights.
        (ii)   Contour lines and their shapes represent the height and slope or gradient of the land form.
       (iii)   Closely spaced contours represent steep slopes while widely spaced contours represent gentle slope .
       (iv)   When two or more contour lines merge with each other, they represent features of vertical slopes such as cliffs or waterfalls.
       (v)   Two contours of different elevation usually do not cross each other.

55. What is a cliff ?

Cliff is a high, steep,almost  vertical rock face or slope.This is represented by the merger of two or more contour lines.The closer and more numerous the contour lines, the steeper the slope. In topographic maps where two or more contours merge, the cliff symbol is marked. Cliff occur commonly along the coast owing to the erosive action of waves.

56. What is a waterfall?

A waterfall occurs where there is a steep slope along the path of a river. Waterfalls vertically down the steep slope. Waterfalls are represented by the merger of two or more contours across the path of a river .

57. What is a wind gap?

A wind gap is a narrow indentation or opening in a mountain range, through which the wind passes.

58. What is a watershed?

A watershed, water parting or water divide is the imaginary line often following the crests of ridges and spurs,separating two drainage systems or basins where the rivers/ streams flow in opposite direction from this imaginary line.

59. What is gradient ?

The slope between two points may be expressed quantitatively as gradient. The gradient between the two points is expressed as a ratio between the vertical interval between two points and horizontal distance between them.

60. What are the interpretation of the signs and symbols used on topographic maps?

The Topographic map contains a variety of information about physical features and cultural features.The following are the interpretation of the signs and symbols used on topographic maps.
           (i)  Marginal information or sheet number
          (ii)  Scale
          (iii) Grid lines
          (iv) Latitudinal and longitudinal squares
          (v)  Legend

61. What is scale?

Scale is the ratio between the distances of two points on the map, plan or photograph and the actual distance between the same two points on the ground.

62. What is a dam?

A dam is a man-made structure build across a river in order to store or control the flow of water.Depending on its size, the dam can be utilized to control floods,store water for irrigation and generate hydroelectricity.It is natural if it has no embankment.

63.  What do you mean by causeway?

Causeway is a raised metalled road across a lake, stream, minor river or shallow marshy area. It links important or developing areas.

64.  What do you mean by aqueduct?

Aqueduct is indicated on the map by its name " aqueduct ".It is an artificial channel or pipeline built of masonry, elevated and used for carrying water.It is more like a tiny, subsidiary canal.

65. What are the most important and common drainage patterns?

The most important and common drainage patterns are:
          (i) Radial pattern
          (ii) Dendritic pattern
         (iii) Trellised pattern
        (iv)  Disappearing or ephemeral streams or disappearing drainage

66.  What is radial pattern? 

In upland areas from peaks,particularly conical peaks,dissected uplands,where streams flow down or radiate in different directions from a central focal point,the drainage pattern is said to be radial.

67.  What is dendritic pattern?

From the Greek word " dendron " meaning tree - like,this is the most common drainage pattern.The relief being more or less uniform,the tributaries join the main river at acute angles.

68. What is trellised pattern?

Due to alternating layers of hard and soft rock,the streams and tributaries join the main river at right angles forming a trellis.It is also known as rectangular drainage pattern.

69. What is disappearing drainage?

Disappearing streams do not join the main river but simply disappear due to porosity of soil such as sand, chalk, limestone etc and insufficient water in it. It found in arid regions.

70. Difference between natural and man made features?

Natural features are physical features for which man is not responsible.

Man made features are those which man has built.Example: Villages,tanks,post and telegraph offices,hospitals,places of worship,metalled or unmetalled roads,card tracks etc to name a few.

71.  What is the drainage pattern?

The drainage pattern of an area is the out come of the geological time period,nature and structure of rocks,topography,slope amount of water flowing and the periodicity of the flow.

72.  What are man made features?

Man made features are those which man has built. Example : Villages,tanks,post and telegraph offices,hospitals,places of worship,metalled or unmetalled roads,cart tracks etc to name a few.

73.  What are settlements ?

Settlements are usually classified according to their size,shape,pattern and permanency as also whether they can rural or urban,their position and function.

74.  What are the factors that determine location and type of settlements?

The factors that determine location and type of settlements are:

             (i)   Confluence of rivers.
            (ii)   A large plain / agricultural land.
           (iii)   Sheltered valleys and the entrance to them.
           (iv)   Near the mouth of the river.
           (v)    Where the river can be easily crossed by bridge, causeway, ford or ferry.
          (vi)    Near a pass or on a plateau.
          (vii)   Central location.
        (viii)    Availability of raw materials.
          (ix)   Rouse focus point.

75.  What is nodal center?

A town located at the junction of many routes is usually situated at the intersection of those routes and such a town is known as a nodal center.Usually it is very important and keeps increasing its importance due to minerals,industry,trade.

76.  What are scattered settlements?

Permanent huts are scattered or located on large farms where there is sparse population.If the region is a highland,then livestock rearing will be the main occupation spread over a large area.

77. What are linear settlements?

Permanent huts and houses are built alongside the local main road,railway line or river banks.In coastal areas they are similarly built.However,in course of time,these develop as route focus,trading centers or collecting and distributing settlements.

78. What are Nucleated settlements?

Buildings / permanent huts form clustered or compact settlements gradually merging into each other forming bigger townships.These concentrated settlements suggest productivity and prosperity and are usually located on fertile plains,or sheltered valleys where large populations can progress.

79.  What are radial pattern settlements?

Radial pattern settlements are clustered in a star like pattern around a tank,lake,factory etc.

80.  What are urban settlements?

Urban settlements follow geometrical patterns usually in squares and rectangles and are well laid out.

81.  What is a nodal town?

A nodal town is the junction of many routes and usually has a dense settlement with a radial pattern of communication.

82.  What is large town?

Large towns have a dense or compact pattern of roads where as modern planned cities have a rectangular grid pattern of communication.

83. What are the patterns of communication?

The following are the patterns of communication.
        (i)   Diffused or irregular
       (ii)   Radial or converging
       (iii)  Dense or compact
       (iv)  Grid or rectangular

84.  What is converging pattern?

Diffused pattern is an irregular,widely spread pattern that links scattered towns and villages without any real planning.It is an old system.

85.  What is converging pattern?

From a focal point or route,focal center or nodal center roads and railways have spread outwards.It is also known as radial pattern.

86.  What is compact pattern?

A well developed and well planned network of metalled roads links large towns to each other.It is also known as dense patterns.

87.  What is rectangular pattern?

Modern well planned towns and cities have a systematic pattern of well constructed roads linking them to each other. Communication becomes easier as a result and more disciplined.

88.  What is spot height?

Spot height is the estimated height in meters of a particular point on the ground indicated on the map by a black dot in front of its height. It is called a spot height.

89.  What do you mean by triangulated heights?

Triangulated heights also referred to as triangulation points or triangulation stations.The height is calculated by trigonometry and hence accurate.It is depicted by a triangle with a dot within and the height beside it.

90.  What do you mean by benchmarks?

Benchmarks are cut into BM 560 stone,shown on a building or curved on a prominent tree to indicate the accurate height determined by surveys.

91. What do you mean by relative height?

Relative height is calculated from ground level and not mean sea level.It may be the relative height of a peak,dam,sand dune etc or the relative depth of a water body - lake,tank etc.

92.  What do you mean by sand dunes?

Hills or mounds of sand in crescentic or longitudinal dunes shaded in brown indicating arid, desert conditions.

93. What do you mean by stone quarry ?

Place where stones,gravel and slate are cut or blasted for building purposes.Quarrying becomes an important occupation of the people.Mining settlements develop in these regions.

94. What are the colors of a topographic map?

The colors of a topographic map are of great significance,as they indicate certain features.
         (i)    Black
         (ii)    Red
        (iii)    Blue
       (iv)    Brown
        (v)    Green
        (vi)   Yellow
        (vii)   White patches

95.  What are the categories of topographic map?

The topographic map is classified into major categories like physical features,drainage,land use,settlements,transport and communications and marginal information

96.  What are boundaries?

Administrative boundaries are shown by discontinuous lines with dots, dishes or crosses. International boundaries, state boundaries, boundaries of district, taluk or tehsil or pargana are shown by different types of lines.

97.  What do you mean by marginal information?

Outside the map proper,there are margins on the four sides.The values of latitude and longitude are printed on the margins.The following details are printed on the top margin of the map.Names of states and districts covered by the map,sheet number and number of edition, year of survey the amount of magnetic declination and its rate of variation.The bottom margin of the map includes selected conventional signs and symbols.

98.  What do you mean by land use shown on topographical maps ?

A lot of information about various types of land use and vegetation type is represented on topographic maps.Cultivated land is shown by yellow color.Forests and other wooded areas are represented in green color.In case of reserved forests their boundaries are democrated and the name of the forest and the letters R.F are also printed.Various kinds of trees such as pine,palm,palmyra,coconut,plantain etc are shown by different symbols in green.

99. Describe the physical features of an area represented on topographic maps.

Physical features are shown by contour lines which are drawn in brown.Every fifth contour is drawn by a thick line and is numbered.Generally contours are drawn at an interval of 20 meter.In lowlands and deltas; they may be drawn at an interval of 10 meter. Approximate contours called form lines,are drawn in brown dashed lines.

100.  What is open mixed jungle and Dense mixed jungle?

The Northern hilly region is covered with mixed jungle.This is known as open mixed jungle and pense mixed jungle printed on the map.The green shading indicates that the area is classified as forest.The vegetation may consist of short trees with tall grass typical of a jungle.